>>>>In the context of these innovations, geographic information systems have served an important role as an integrating technology. Rather than being completely new, GIS have evolved by linking a number of discrete technologies into a whole that is greater than the sum of its parts. GIS have emerged as very powerful technologies because they allow geographers to integrate their data and methods in ways that support traditional forms of geographical analysis, such as map overlay analysis as well as new types of analysis and modeling that are beyond the capability of manual methods. With GIS it is possible to map, model, query, and analyze large quantities of data all held together within a single database.
The importance of GIS as an integrating technology is also evident in its pedigree. The development of GIS has relied on innovations made in many different disciplines: Geography, Cartography, Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing, Surveying, Geodesy, Civil Engineering, Statistics, Computer Science, Operations Research, Artificial Intelligence, Demography, and many other branches of the social sciences, natural sciences, and engineering have all contributed. Indeed, some of the most interesting applications of GIS technology discussed below draw upon this interdisciplinary character and heritage. In the context of these innovations, geographic information systems have served an important role as an integrating technology. Rather than being completely new, GIS have evolved by linking a number of discrete technologies into a whole that is greater than the sum of its parts. GIS have emerged as very powerful technologies because they allow geographers to integrate their data and methods in ways that support traditional forms of geographical analysis, such as map overlay analysis as well as new types of analysis and modeling that are beyond the capability of manual methods. With GIS it is possible to map, model, query, and analyze large quantities of data all held together within a single database.
The importance of GIS as an integrating technology is also evident in its pedigree. The development of GIS has relied on innovations made in many different disciplines: Geography, Cartography, Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing, Surveying, Geodesy, Civil Engineering, Statistics, Computer Science, Operations Research, Artificial Intelligence, Demography, and many other branches of the social sciences, natural sciences, and engineering have all contributed. Indeed, some of the most interesting applications of GIS technology discussed below draw upon this interdisciplinary character and heritage.
الأربعاء، يناير 17، 2007
The Course of Technological Innovation
These advances in the application of information technologies in geography began several decades ago and will continue to expand their effects into the foreseeable future. Scholars who have studied the spread of technological innovations in society sometimes divide the process into four phases:
Initiation: An innovation first becomes available.
Contagion: Far-ranging experimentation follows to see how the innovation can be adapted to meet a wide variety of research and commercial needs. Some, but not necessarily all of these experiments will work.
Coordination: The most promising applications of the innovation gradually gain acceptance and are developed collaboratively. The coordination of experimentation helps to distribute the potentially high costs of further development and implementation.
Integration: A innovation is accepted and integrated into routine research tasks. In geography, many innovations in the application of information technologies began in the late 1950s, 1960s and early 1970s. Methods of sophisticated mathematical and statistical modeling were developed and the first remote sensing data became available. Researchers began also to envision the development of geographic information systems. The mid-1970s to early 1990s was a period of contagion. The first commercially available software for GIS became available in the late 1970s and spurred many experiments, as did the development of the first microcomputers in the early 1980s. This was an exciting time in which the development of powerful software coupled with the availability of inexpensive computers permitted many researchers to test new ideas and applications for the first time. In the early 1990s, or perhaps just a bit earlier, many innovations entered the coordination phase even as other experimentation continued at a fast pace. The strengths and weaknesses of many information technologies were by then apparent, and researchers began to work together to cultivate the most promising applications on a large scale. Arguably, the complete integration of information technologies in geography has yet to be achieved except perhaps in a few relatively specialized research areas. Complete integration across the discipline may, in fact, be many years away.
Initiation: An innovation first becomes available.
Contagion: Far-ranging experimentation follows to see how the innovation can be adapted to meet a wide variety of research and commercial needs. Some, but not necessarily all of these experiments will work.
Coordination: The most promising applications of the innovation gradually gain acceptance and are developed collaboratively. The coordination of experimentation helps to distribute the potentially high costs of further development and implementation.
Integration: A innovation is accepted and integrated into routine research tasks. In geography, many innovations in the application of information technologies began in the late 1950s, 1960s and early 1970s. Methods of sophisticated mathematical and statistical modeling were developed and the first remote sensing data became available. Researchers began also to envision the development of geographic information systems. The mid-1970s to early 1990s was a period of contagion. The first commercially available software for GIS became available in the late 1970s and spurred many experiments, as did the development of the first microcomputers in the early 1980s. This was an exciting time in which the development of powerful software coupled with the availability of inexpensive computers permitted many researchers to test new ideas and applications for the first time. In the early 1990s, or perhaps just a bit earlier, many innovations entered the coordination phase even as other experimentation continued at a fast pace. The strengths and weaknesses of many information technologies were by then apparent, and researchers began to work together to cultivate the most promising applications on a large scale. Arguably, the complete integration of information technologies in geography has yet to be achieved except perhaps in a few relatively specialized research areas. Complete integration across the discipline may, in fact, be many years away.
السبت، يناير 13، 2007
Information Technologies in Geography
GIS is one of many information technologies that have transformed the ways geographers conduct research and contribute to society. In the past two decades, these information technologies have had tremendous effects on research techniques specific to geography, as well as on the general ways in which scientists and scholars communicate and collaborate. Discipline-Specific Tools
Cartography and Computer-Assisted Drafting: Computers offer the same advantages to cartographers that word-processing software offers writers. Automated techniques are now the rule rather than the exception in cartographic production.
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing: Aerial photogrammetry, a well-established technique for cartographic production and geographic analysis, is now complemented by the use of "remotely sensed" information gathered by satellites in outer space. Information technologies have made both sorts of information far more readily available and far easier to use.
Spatial Statistics: Statistical analysis and modeling of spatial patterns and processes have long relied on computer technology. Advances in information technology have made these techniques more widely accessible and have allowed models to expand in complexity and scale to provide more accurate depictions of real-world processes.
Geographic Information Systems (GIS): These systems allow geographers to collate and analyze information far more readily than is possible with traditional research techniques. As will be noted below, GIS can be viewed as an integrating technology insofar as it draws upon and extends techniques that geographers have long used to analyze natural and social systems. General Communication, Research, and Publication Technologies
Communication and Collaboration: Electronic mail, discussion lists, and computer bulletin boards make it far easier for colleagues to communicate ideas and share ideas, locally, nationally, and internationally. Distance-learning techniques make it possible to hold interactive classes and workshops simultaneously at distant locations.
Access to Library and Research Materials and Sources: Network access to both primary and secondary research resources is expanding rapidly. From their offices, scholars can now get information held by libraries, government agencies, and research institutions all over the world.
Publication and Dissemination: Information technologies are reducing substantially the cost of publishing and distributing information as well as reducing the time required to circulate the latest news and research results.
Cartography and Computer-Assisted Drafting: Computers offer the same advantages to cartographers that word-processing software offers writers. Automated techniques are now the rule rather than the exception in cartographic production.
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing: Aerial photogrammetry, a well-established technique for cartographic production and geographic analysis, is now complemented by the use of "remotely sensed" information gathered by satellites in outer space. Information technologies have made both sorts of information far more readily available and far easier to use.
Spatial Statistics: Statistical analysis and modeling of spatial patterns and processes have long relied on computer technology. Advances in information technology have made these techniques more widely accessible and have allowed models to expand in complexity and scale to provide more accurate depictions of real-world processes.
Geographic Information Systems (GIS): These systems allow geographers to collate and analyze information far more readily than is possible with traditional research techniques. As will be noted below, GIS can be viewed as an integrating technology insofar as it draws upon and extends techniques that geographers have long used to analyze natural and social systems. General Communication, Research, and Publication Technologies
Communication and Collaboration: Electronic mail, discussion lists, and computer bulletin boards make it far easier for colleagues to communicate ideas and share ideas, locally, nationally, and internationally. Distance-learning techniques make it possible to hold interactive classes and workshops simultaneously at distant locations.
Access to Library and Research Materials and Sources: Network access to both primary and secondary research resources is expanding rapidly. From their offices, scholars can now get information held by libraries, government agencies, and research institutions all over the world.
Publication and Dissemination: Information technologies are reducing substantially the cost of publishing and distributing information as well as reducing the time required to circulate the latest news and research results.
الجمعة، يناير 12، 2007
What is GIS ?
GIS is a collection of computer hardware, software, and geographic data for capturing, managing, analyzing, and displaying all forms of geographically referenced information.
Why Geography?
Geography is a serious discipline with multibillion dollar implications for businesses and governments. Choosing sites, targeting market segments, planning distribution networks, responding to emergencies, or redrawing country boundaries—all of these problems involve questions of geography.
Here's an example of how Bank of America used GIS to show the geographic distribution of the bank's network in relation to deposit potential in the New York City market area. From this analysis, Bank of America can determine where their coverage is strong and where it is weak. Red dots symbolize strong coverage; no dots means coverage is nonexistent.
Learn more about why Geography Matters [white paper, PDF-319 KB].
How Does GIS Use Geography?
With a geographic information system (GIS), you can link information (attributes) to location data, such as people to addresses, buildings to parcels, or streets within a network. You can then layer that information to give you a better understanding of how it all works together. You choose what layers to combine based on what questions you need to answer.
In this example, emergency medical service (EMS) call information, including call type, elapsed travel time, and which rescue unit was dispatched to the call's location, has been linked to addresses. With this GIS-linked database, questions such as "What percent of dispatched calls did each EMS unit respond to within its assigned zone?" can be answered.
بيانات نظام المعلومات الجغرافية
ما هو نوع البيانات الخرائطية الذي أحتاجه ؟ إذا لم تكن ذو معرفة بالبيانات الخرائطية ، فكر أولاً كيف تريد أن تستخدم البيانات الخرائطية . يمكن مقابلة حاجة العديد من المشاريع بالأنواع الشائعة من البيانات الخرائطية التالية
خرائط القاعدة : و تشمل الشوارع و الطرق السريعة و الحدود و الأماكن البريدية و السياسة و الأنهار و البحيرات و الحدائق و العلامات البارزة و أسماء الأماكن
خرائط الأعمال و البيانات: و تشمل البيانات المتعلقة بالتعداد السكاني و الديموغرافي و تشمل منتجات المستهلكين و الخدمات المالية و العناية الصحية و العقارات و الإتصالات التلفونية و الإستعدادات للطوارئ و الجرائم و الإعلان و إنشاء الأعمال و النقل
خرائط البيئة و البيانات : و تشمل البيانات المتعلقة بالبيئة و الطقس و المخاطر البيئية و صور الأقمار الصناعية و الطبوغرافية و المصادر الطبيعية
خرائط المراجع العامة : و تشمل خرائط العالم و الدول و البيانات الممكن أن تكون مؤسسة لقواعد معلوماتك
خرائط القاعدة : و تشمل الشوارع و الطرق السريعة و الحدود و الأماكن البريدية و السياسة و الأنهار و البحيرات و الحدائق و العلامات البارزة و أسماء الأماكن
خرائط الأعمال و البيانات: و تشمل البيانات المتعلقة بالتعداد السكاني و الديموغرافي و تشمل منتجات المستهلكين و الخدمات المالية و العناية الصحية و العقارات و الإتصالات التلفونية و الإستعدادات للطوارئ و الجرائم و الإعلان و إنشاء الأعمال و النقل
خرائط البيئة و البيانات : و تشمل البيانات المتعلقة بالبيئة و الطقس و المخاطر البيئية و صور الأقمار الصناعية و الطبوغرافية و المصادر الطبيعية
خرائط المراجع العامة : و تشمل خرائط العالم و الدول و البيانات الممكن أن تكون مؤسسة لقواعد معلوماتك
السبت، ديسمبر 30، 2006
مهام نظام المعلومات الجغرافي
تقوم أنظمة المعلومات الجغرافية (جي آي إس) العامة بستة مهام وهي الإدخال و المعالجة و الإدارة و الإستفسار و التحليل و التصور
أ- الإدخال : قبل أن يمكن استخدام المعلومات في نظام المعلومات الجغرافي (جي آي إس) يجب تحويلها إلى شكل رقمي مناسب ، و عليه فإن عملية تحويل البيانات من الخرائط الورقية إلى ملفات في داخل الحاسب تعرف بالترقيم تعمل أنظمة المعلومات الجغرافية الحديثة على الأتممة التامة لعملية الترقيم للمشاريع الكبيرة عن طريق تقنية المسح الضوئي السريع ، أما الوظائف الصغيرة فيمكن ترقيمها يدوياً و توجد اليوم العديد من البيانات الجغرافية على شكل متماثل مع أنظمة المعلومات الجغرافية (جي آي إس) و يمكن الحصول عليها من موردي البيانات و تحميلها مباشرة إلى الحاسب
ب- المعالجة : من المحتمل أن أنواع البيانات المطلوبة لمشروع نظام المعلومات الجغرافي (جي آي إس) تتطلب تحويلها و معالجتها بطريقة ما لجعلها متماثلة مع نظامك . على سبيل المثال فإن المعلومات الجغرافية متوفرة عند مقاييس مختلفة (ملفات خط منتصف الرمز البريدي على مستوى المنطقة) . يجب قبل أن يمكن تتكامل هذه المعلومات أن تحول إلى نفس المقاس (درجة التفصيل أو الدقة) و هذه يمكن ان تكون عملية تحويل مؤقتة لأغراض العرض أو عملية دائمة مطلوبة للتحليل . تقدم تقنيات نظام المعلومات الجغرافي (جي آي إس) العديد من العدد لمعالجة البيانات المكانية و إهمال البيانات الغير مطلوبة
ت- الإدارة : قد يكون من الكافي لمشاريع أنظمة المعلومات الجغرافية الصغيرة أن يتم تخزين المعلومات في ملف بسيط . و لكن عندما يصبح حجم البيانات كبير و عدد المستخدمين أكثر من مجموعة صغيرة فإنه غالباً من الأفضل إستخدام أنظمة إدارة قواعد البيانات (DBMS) للمساعدة في تخزين و تنظيم و إدارة البيانات. إن نظام إدارة قواعد البيانات ليس إلا مجرد برنامج حاسب لإدارة قواعد البيانات ، هناك العديد من التصاميم المختلفة لأنظمة إدارة قواعد البيانات ، و لكن أفضلها فائدة لنظام المعلومات الجغرافي هو التصميم العلاقي . تخزن البيانات بإستخدام التصميم العلاقي مفاهمياً كمجموعة من الجداول المختلفة لربطها مع بعضها البعض . هذا التصميم السهل و المدهش تم إستخدامه على نطاق واسع لمرونته و بإنتشار واسع في التطبيقات داخل و خارج نظام المعلومات الجغرافي
ث- الإستفسار و التحليل : بمجرد أن يكون لديك نظام معلومات جغرافي (جي آي إس) فعال ، يمكنك البدء في توجيه أسئلة بسيطة مثل من يملك قطعة الأرض في الزاوية ؟ كم البعد بين مكانين ؟ آين هي الأرض المخصصة للإستخدام الصناعي ؟ و يمكن أيضاً توجيه الأسئلة التحليلية التالية على سبيل المثال : أين هي المواقع المناسبة لبناء منازل جديدة ؟ ما هي نوع التربة الطاغية لشجرة النخيل ؟ إذا قمت بتشييد طريق سريع هنا ، كيف يمكن أن تتأثر الحركة المرورية ؟ يقدم نظام المعلومات الجغرافي (جي آي إس) القدرات على الإستفسار السهل عن طريق الطرق على أي نقطة على الشاشة و كذلك عدد التحليل المعقدة لتقديم المعلومات الوقتية اللازمة للمدراء و المستخدمين على السواء . تبرز قوة نظام المعلومات الجغرافي (جي آي إس) عندما يستخدم للبحث عن شركاء أو الإتجاهات أو عندما يتطلب
السيناريو أسئلة من نوع ماذا لو التصور و التحليل يمكن تصور أو تخيل النتيجة النهائية للعديد من العمليات الجغرافية أفضل عن طريق خريطة أو رسم بياني . للخرائط كفاءة كبيرة في حفظ و توصيل المعلومات الجغرافية . إستخدم الرسامون الخرائط لألاف السنين لتوضيح العلاقات المكانية و الجغرافية ، إلا أن نظام المعلومات الجغرافي (جي آي إس) يقدم وسائل جديدة و مثيرة لتطوير فن و علم رسم الخرائط . يمكن للعرض الخرائطي أن يجمع بين التقارير و المناظر الثلاثية الأبعاد و الصور الفوتوغرافية و أنواع أخرى مثل الوسائط المتعددة .
تهنئة بمناسبة عيد الاضحى المبارك
يتقدم الأستاذ منصور بأحر التهاني والتبريكات بمناسبة حلول عيد الأضحى المبارك أعاده الله علينا وعليكم باليمن والبركات وقد تحررت بلاد المسلمين من الغاصبين المحتلين .
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